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Browsing by Author "Zhou, XY"

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Climate instability during the last deglaciation in central Asia, reconstructed by pollen data from Yili Valley, NW China
(Elsevier Science BV, 2013-02-15) Zhao, KL; Li, XQ; Dodson, JR; Zhou, XY; Atahan, P
An extended pollen record with grain size analysis and AMS C-14 dating is provided for a palaeolake section which is located in an intermountain basin in Yili Valley, Xinjiang, NW China. Covering the late MIS 3, early MIS 2 and the last deglaciation, vegetation variations and climate events are discussed in relation to changes in pollen assemblages and Artemisia/Chenopodiaceae (A/C) ratios. The presence of montane forest-steppe dominated by Picea and Taraxacum indicates a relative humid climate in the study area during late MIS 3 (before 31.5 cal kyr BP). Picea forest disappeared and the vegetation dominated by Chenopodiaceae shows the climate became dry from 31.5 to 14.7 cal kyr BP. The sediments of Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) period are absent in the section probably. Betula-Picea mixed forest occurred at 14.7 cal kyr BP and corresponds to the onset of the warm Bolling period in the North Atlantic. A long dry period was detected from 14.5 to 13.6 cal kyr BP on the basis of the occurrence of Chenopodiaceae desert. A subalpine meadow community dominated by Geranium covered the area during 13.6-13.4 cal kyr BP, suggesting lower temperatures at this time. This may coincide with the Older Dryas (OD). The most humid period in the record occurred between 13.4 and 12.9 cal kyr BP, which coincides with the warm Allerod period. Dry conditions prevailed from similar to 12.9 to 11.7 cal kyr BP in the area, coinciding with the Younger Dryas (YD) in the North Atlantic. Within this period a three-phase climate fluctuation was detected, which can be summarized as follows: a dry early YD (12.9-12.6 cal kyr BP), a slightly moister mid-YD (12.6-12.0 cal kyr BP) and a very dry late YD (12.0-11.7 cal kyr BP). These millennial to century-scale climatic events in Yili Valley correlate well with other palaeoclimate records in North Hemisphere, suggesting that these events probably originate from same mechanisms. © 2013, Elsevier Ltd.
Climatic variations over the last 4000 cal yr BP in the western margin of the Tarim Basin, Xinjiang, reconstructed from pollen data
(Elsevier, 2012-03-01) Zhao, K; Li, XQ; Dodson, JR; Atahan, P; Zhou, XY; Bertuch, F
The nature of Holocene climate patterns and mechanisms in central Asia are open areas of inquiry. In this study, regional vegetation and climate dynamics over the last ca. 4000 years are reconstructed using a high resolution pollen record from the Kashgar oasis, on the western margin of the Tarim Basin, central Asia. Ephedra, Chenopodiaceae and Cannabaceae dominate the pollen assemblages, and Chenopodiaceae/Ephedra ratios and percentages of long-distance transported pollen taxa are used to infer regional variations in moisture and vegetation density. Three periods of increased humidity are identified, from ca. 4000–2620 cal yr BP, ca. 1750–1260 cal yr BP and ca. 550–390 cal yr BP and these periods coincide with the respective Holocene Bond Events 2, 1 and 0, which are reported in the North Atlantic. Any increase in strength, or southward migration, of the mid-latitude westerlies would result in more precipitation and meltwater on mountains surrounding the study site. Warm and dry conditions are detected between ca.1260 and 840 cal yr BP (AD 690–1110), and cool and wet conditions are detected between ca. 840 and 680 cal yr BP (AD 1110–1270), during the Medieval Warm Period (ca. AD 800–1200). The climate variations in the Kashgar region over the last 4000 years appear to have been dominated by changes to the westerly circulation system and glacier dynamics on surrounding mountains. However, the question of whether the Asian monsoon delivers precipitation to the western Tarim Basin, a region that is influenced by several climate systems, is still open to debate. © 2012 Elsevier B.V.
Earliest archaeobiological evidence of the broadening agriculture in China recorded at Xishanping site in Gansu Province
(Science in China Press (SCP), 2007-11) Li, XQ; Zhou, XY; Zhou, J; Dodson, JR; Zhang, HB; Shang, X
The crop types and agricultural characteristic are reconstructed using the archaeobiological proxies of pollen, seed and phytolith at Xishanping site in Gansu Province between 5250 and 4300 cal a BP. The agricultural activity strengthened in Xishanping from 5100 cal a BP. It appeared the earliest cultivation of prehistoric rice in the most northwest China at 5070 cal a BP. The sudden disappearance of conifers and expansion of chestnut trees is likely to be the result of selective hewing of conifers and cultivation of chestnuts at about 4600 cal a BP. There existed 8 crop types of foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, rice, wheat, barley, oats, soybean and buckwheat at Xishanping between 4650 and 4300 cal a BP, which cover the main crop types of the two origin centers of East and West Asia. Not only has the wheat and barley been approved to spread to northwestern China, but the earliest complexity agriculture in Neolithic China appeared in Tianshui, Gansu Province. © 2007, Science in China Press (SCP)
Early agricultural development and environmental effects in the Neolithic Longdong basin (East Gansu)
(Springer Nature, 2011-03-01) Zhou, XY; Li, XQ; Zhao, KL; Dodson, JR; Sun, N; Yang, Q
Neolithic agricultural development and environmental effects in the Longdong area were reconstructed using a synthetic approach, investigating pollen, charcoal, and seed remains for two cultural layer sections and five flotation sites. Results show that Neolithic agriculture in the Longdong area had a simple organization and was dominated by the production of common millet, especially in the early and middle Yangshao age. After the late Yangshao age, Neolithic agriculture developed into a more complex structure, dominated by both common and foxtail millet and the cultivation of rice and soybeans. The production of foxtail millet gradually increased through the Neolithic period, reaching its highest point during the Qijia culture. Soybeans were first cultivated during the late Yangshao culture, approximately 5000 cal a BP. Rice production began no later than 4800 cal a BP, and continued to exist in the Qijia culture, approximately 4000 cal a BP. Agricultural production in Neolithic Longdong, specifically in the "Yuan" area of the loess plateau, developed as a shrub and grass dominated landscape. Vegetation in the river valleys was partly covered with Picea, Tusga, and Quercus coniferous and broadleaf mixed forests. Agricultural activity during the Neolithic period caused an increase in farmland on the loess tableland and a decrease in the abundance of shrub and grassland in the Longdong area. When farmlands were abandoned, vegetation recovered with Hippophae-, Rosaceae-, Ephedra-, and Leguminosae-dominated shrublands and Artemisia-dominated grasslands. © The Author(s) 2011.
The early agriculture and its impact on landscape in NW China
(Australian Geosciences Council, 2012-08-05) Li, XQ; Dodson, JR; Zhou, XY; Zhou, KL; Sun, N
The agriculture, as one of the most important events, appeared in the early Holocene and developed rapidly, which is the most important economic activity and the base of the forming and development of civilization. Millet and rice based agriculture originated in the Yellow and Yangtze valleys in the early Holocene respectively. Wild wheat strains were first used in the Fertile Crescent of Southwest Asia in the late-glacial and domesticated wheat was widespread in that region by 10500 BP. The early agriculture development included population growth, the expansions of material cultures, and its impacts on the landscape. The Northwestern China lies between the heartlands of wheat, rice and rain-fed agriculture and is also crossed by the famous ‘Silk Road’. The early agriculture and its impact were reconstructed based on the records of pollen, charcoal, seeds, phytolith, together with the high resolution AMS 14C dating. Neolithic agriculture in NW China had a simple organization and was dominated by the production of common millet in the early-middle Yangshao Culture (7000–5000 BP). After the late Yangshao age, the agriculture were dominated by both common and foxtail millet. Approximately 5000 cal BP ago, the rice and soybeans have been cultivated and continued to exist in the Qijia culture (4000–3800 BP). The agriculture developed into a more complex structure. The earliest wheat ages cluster around 4100 to 3800 cal BP in northern China’s Hexi corridor of Gansu Province and the likely route of wheat into China was via Russia and Mongolia. Wheat was added as a new crop to the existing millet and rice based agricultural systems. Eight crop types of foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, rice, wheat, barley, oats, soybean and buckwheat appeared and covered the main crop types of the two origin centers of East and West Asia around 4000 cal BP, which suggest the earliest complexity agriculture in Neolithic China. The land use and fire activity by early farmers are much different from the hunting-gathering society. The vegetation and environment were affected greatly by agricultural activity. Prehistoric farmers needed cultivated land and plants to live and caused an increase in farmland and influence on the vegetation during the Neolithic. Land degradation is probably the main cause for decreased agricultural activity and settlement abandonment in arid area. Agriculture induced soil fertility loss and land salinization contributed to the process of land degradation. The intensity and scale that prehistoric farmers impact on the landscape were much greater than previously thought during the Neolithic in NW China.
Early bronze in two Holocene archaeological sites in Gansu, NW China
(Elsevier, 2009-11) Dodson, JR; Li, XQ; Ji, M; Zhao, KL; Zhou, XY; Levchenko, VA
Understanding of the origin and development of bronze technology in eastern Asia remains unresolved. Here we report on the distribution of copper and associated cations in sediments from Huoshiliang in northwestern Gansu, China, strontium and lead isotope analyses of ore and slag samples, and some artifact fragments at archaeological sites at Ganggangwa and Huoshiliang in the Black River valley. We conclude that bronze production began perhaps as early as 2135 BC and that the Baishantang modern mine site at Dingxin was a possible source of copper ore. There was at least one other, but currently unidentified, source of ore. The Bronze Age people were also farmers and planted cereals such as wheat, and they may have abandoned the region when wood was exhausted and desertification took over. © 2009, Elsevier Ltd.
Early cultivated wheat and broadening of agriculture in Neolithic China
(SAGE Publications, 2007-07) Li, XQ; Dodson, JR; Zhou, XY; Zhang, HB; Masutomoto, R
Evidence for cultivated wheat at 4650 cal. yr BP, as part of a broadening agricultural-based society (4650-4300 cal. yr BP), is presented from Xishanping in northwest China. This was established from archaeobotanical evidence and radiocarbon dating. Crops from SW Asia had therefore been adopted in China about 2500 years earlier than previously thought, and long before the 'Silk Road' route was known to be used. The data show that the early infiltration and blending of agriculture involving rice, buckwheat, barley, millet and wheat occurred in this region. This raises questions as to why crops from China do not appear further westward at this time and how the blending of agricultural practices contributed to the development of Chinese civilization. © 2007, SAGE Publications
Early Neolithic diets at Baijia, Wei River valley, China: Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human and faunal remains
(Past Global Changes, 2013-02-13) Atahan, P; Dodson, JR; Li, XQ; Zhou, XY; Hu, S; Chen, L; Bertuch, F; Grice, K
The first farmers of the Wei River valley belonged to the Laoguantai period (ca. 8500-7000 yr BP) and lived in small settlements that were sparsely distributed in the landscape. Understanding of Laoguantai farming practices is limited as only a small number of archaeological sites are known. Here we present stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values for faunal and human bone collagen from Baijia, a Laoguantai site in the Wei River valley of Shaanxi Province, China. Five of the collagen samples have been AMS 14C dated and have a calibrated age range of ca. 7659-7339 yr BP. Stable isotope results show millet and aquatic foods, such as fish and shellfish, being included in the human diet. Bovid samples, which are tentatively identified as water buffalo, have stable carbon isotope values reflecting some millet consumption. The question of whether these bovids were grazing on millet growing wild, or had diets directly influenced by humans, remains to be answered. Stable isotope results for a single pig reveal a markedly different diet, one dominated by C3 plants which would have dominated natural vegetation of the region. Overall, stable isotope results conform to the current view of Laoguantai people being millet farmers with subsistence strategies that included hunted wild foods.
Holocene agriculture in the Guanzhong Basin in NW China indicated by pollen and charcoal evidence
(SAGE Publications, 2009-12) Li, XQ; Shang, X; Dodson, JR; Zhou, XY
The emergence and rapid spread of agriculture from the early Holocene has made a great impact on the development of human societies and landscape change. Guanzhong Basin in the middle of Yellow River valley has a long continuous history of agriculture since the Neolithic. The pollen and charcoal records from Xindian in western Guanzhong Basin, together with the known distribution of archaeological sites, provide proxies to reconstruct the history of agricultural activity and landscape change. The concentration and percentage of Poaceae pollen increase from about 7700 yr BP ago and the concentration of charcoal shows the same trend. These records indicate that the ‘slash-and-burn’ cultivation for agriculture began around 7700 years ago. Between 7700 and 5500 yr BP, the evidence of cereal crops remained strong and charcoal concentration and archaeological sites increased greatly, which all indicate increased agricultural activity and the expansion of human populations. This was enhanced by the continuous development of new cultivation tools and techniques between 4700 and 3300 yr BP, especially in the Bronze Age of the pre-Zhou Dynasty. The original agricultural landscape had been settled after 3300 yr BP. Buckwheat became an important crop from around 5500 yr BP, perhaps because of increasing aridity. This is the earliest record of cultivated buckwheat in Neolithic China. © 2009, SAGE Publications
Human activity and its impact on the landscape at the Xishanping site in the western Loess Plateau during 4800-4300 cal yr BP based on the fossil charcoal record
(Elsevier Science Ltd, 2012-10-01) Li, XQ; Sun, N; Dodson, JR; Zhou, XY
The taxonomic identification of fossil charcoal can be a useful archaeobotanical tool, as it can reveal information about prehistoric humans' use of plant resources and other factors. In this study, we quantify the fossil charcoal in a cultural sequence from Xishanping in the western Loess Plateau of China representing 4800-4300 cal yr BP to consider aspects of humans' impact on this landscape. The fossil charcoal assemblages reveal that the relative abundances of Picea, Betula, Acer, Ulmus and Quercus decreased markedly after 4600 cal yr BP. This suggests a marked decline in the mixed coniferous-broadleaved forest after this time. Concurrently, an increasing abundance of Bambusoideae charcoal has been suggested to reflect the expansion of the bamboo forest. The marked changes in the vegetation after 4600 cal yr BP were not obviously influenced by climate; they may be a better reflection of the results of human activity. Furthermore, other genera that provide important resources to humans also increased after 4600 cal yr BP, including Castanea, Cerasus, Padus and Diospyros. It is nearly certain that nuts and berries were an important food resource and that fruit trees were managed by prehistoric humans in the late Neolithic. This work suggests that the scale of prehistoric human impact on the western Loess Plateau landscape during the late Neolithic was much greater than was previously believed. © 2012, Elsevier Ltd.
Impact of agriculture on an oasis landscape during the late Holocene: Palynological evidence from the Xintala site in Xinjiang, NW China
(Elsevier Ltd., 2013-10-17) Zhao, KL; Li, XQ; Zhou, XY; Dodson, JR; Ji, M
Pollen and charred seeds from the Xintala site within the Yanqi Oasis of Xinjiang in Northwest China were investigated to understand the impact of early agriculture on an oasis landscapes. The data show the original vegetation was meadow steppe dominated by Asteraceae and Poaceae. Wheat-growing agriculture reshaped the landscape by destroying the original vegetation and expanding the farmland area in ca. 3900-3600 cal BP. The high percentage of Typha pollen is likely to have resulted from selective harvesting of cattail for domestic uses. Persistent and probably over-irrigation may have led to an increase in soil salinity as evidenced by dramatic increases in Chenopodiaceae and Nitraria pollen percentages. The land salinization possibly resulted in the weakening of agricultural activity and later the abandonment of farmland after ca. 3600 cal BP at the Xintala site. © 2013, Elsevier Ltd.
The impact of early smelting on the environment of Huoshiliang in Hexi Corridor, NW China, as recorded by fossil charcoal and chemical elements
(Elsevier, 2011-05-15) Li, XQ; Sun, N; Dodson, JR; Ji, M; Zhao, KL; Zhou, XY
Recent research has greatly increased our knowledge of early human impacts on the environment. Records of fossil charcoal and chemical elements from a bronze smelting site at Huoshiliang, in the Hexi corridor of northwest China, provide material with which to estimate the extent of smelting activity and its impact on the environment. Analysis of the microstructure of wood fossil charcoal is used to identify the types of charred wood and to reconstruct the local vegetation present during the period of smelting. Four wood types were used as firewood for smelting: Tamarix, Populus, Salix, and Polygonaceae. The assemblages of fossil charcoal showed that Tamarix was the most dominant shrub and was widely used as firewood, as a percentage of charcoal it increased from 89% to 97% over the smelting period. Populus. Polygonaceae and Salix were much less common and finally disappeared completely. When the trees and shrubs were used as fuel, the vegetation cover was reduced and erosion rates increased. This erosion increase was recorded in the higher values of the Rb/Sr ratio in the lacustrine sediment of Tiaohu lake, located near the Huoshiliang site. The deforestation caused by smelting activity sharply reduced the vegetation coverage and had serious impacts on the environment. When the available fuel wood ceased to meet the needs of smelting and human settlement, the Huoshiliang site was eventually abandoned in about 1860 BC. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V.
Increases of population and expansion of rice agriculture in Asia, and anthropogenic methane emissions since 5000 BP
(Elsevier, 2009-06-01) Li, XQ; Dodson, JR; Zhou, J; Zhou, XY
CO2 and CH4 composition of the atmosphere increased rapidly following the industrial revolution. Recently Ruddiman has suggested that increases in the anthropogenic contribution to atmospheric greenhouse gases had actually begun thousands of years earlier. Research on climates indicates that a cooling and drying trend developed from about 5000 BP across the Asian monsoonal region. Archaeological and biological data reveal that from about the same time there was an important transition point corresponding to the rapid growth of population and expansion of cultivated rice areas. Extensive deforestation also occurred from this time. The expansion of rice agriculture and extended wetland areas provided more sources of methane emissions, and thus contributed to greenhouse gas budgets. The climate impacts of increased anthropogenic methane emissions were possibly counterbalanced in part by any natural decrease from orbital forcing. The methane contribution from rice paddy areas is estimated to be smaller than 250 ppb for the middle-late Neolithic. The 1000-ppb methane rise after industrial era coincides closely with the rapid growth of global human populations, and anthropogenic driven sources. © 2008, Elsevier Ltd.
Millet agriculture in north-central China: evidence from human remains
(Australasian Quaternary Association, 2010-07-16) Atahan, P; Dodson, JR; Li, XQ; Zhou, XY; Chen, L; Grice, K
Not available - Powerpoint slides only.
Moisture dynamics in central Asia for the last 15 kyr: new evidence from Yili Valley, Xinjiang, NW China
(Elsevier, 2011-11-01) Li, XQ; Zhao, KL; Dodson, JR; Zhou, XY
Based on high resolution palynological investigations and AMS(14)C dating, the continuous lacustrine sediments contained in Yili Valley, Xinjiang provide an opportunity to reconstruct the effective moisture changes for the last 15 kyr in central Asia. The relatively warm and humid climate of the Bolling-Allerod (15-12.9 cal kyr BP) is a generalization, but it seems to show some fluctuations. The time of the Younger Dryas (YD) interrupted the increasing trend of effective moisture in the study region, the climate was cold and relatively dry in the early YD period (12.9-12.0 cal kyr BP), whereas the desert vegetation community appeared around 11.8 cal kyr BP, almost the driest time since the 15 cal kyr BR A sharp increase in effective moisture marked the beginning of the Holocene in the Yili Valley. The early Holocene (10.6-7.6 cal kyr BP) was the wettest time with a developed temperate steppe. A dry climate with desert vegetation arose in the early mid-Holocene (7.6-6.5 cal kyr BP), spanning 1100 years. A second humid phase emerged between 6.5 and 5.2 cal kyr BP, whose vegetation community was represented by temperate steppe. Moisture was reduced again and the climate became drier between 5.2 and 3.3 cal kyr BP when vegetation was dominated by desert steppe in the Yili Valley. Regional comparisons indicate that the moisture changes in Yili Valley were mainly influenced by the North Atlantic Ocean SSTs through the westerlies. The mean position of the Siberian High Pressure cell probably made a great contribution to the drought between 7.6 and 6.5 cal kyr BP. The climate changes were generally consistent between the westerly-dominant central Asia and Asian monsoon regions since the last deglaciation, possibly forced by summer insolation conditions in the Northern Hemisphere. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd.
Oldest directly dated remains of sheep in China
(Springer Nature, 2014-11-24) Dodson, JR; Dodson, E; Banati, RB; Li, XQ; Atahan, P; Hu, SM; Middleton, RJ; Zhou, XY; Nan, S
The origins of domesticated sheep (Ovis sp.) in China remain unknown. Previous workers have speculated that sheep may have been present in China up to 7000 years ago, however many claims are based on associations with archaeological material rather than independent dates on sheep material. Here we present 7 radiocarbon dates on sheep bone from Inner Mongolia, Ningxia and Shaanxi provinces. DNA analysis on one of the bones confirms it is Ovis sp. The oldest ages are about 4700 to 4400 BCE and are thus the oldest objectively dated Ovis material in eastern Asia. The graphitisised bone collagen had δ13C values indicating some millet was represented in the diet. This probably indicates sheep were in a domestic setting where millet was grown. The younger samples had δ13C values indicating that even more millet was in the diet, and this was likely related to changes in foddering practices. © 2014, Macmillan Publishers Limited
Origin and spread of wheat in China
(Elsevier, 2013-07-15) Dodson, JR; Li, XQ; Zhou, XY; Zhao, KL; Sun, N; Atahan, P
Wheat was added as a new crop to the existing millet and rice based agricultural systems of China. Here we present 35 radiocarbon ages from wheat seeds collected from 18 sites between western (Xinjiang Province) and eastern (Henan Province) China. The earliest wheat ages cluster around 2100–1800 BCE in northern China's Hexi corridor of Gansu Province, where millet was already a well-established crop. Wheat first appears in Xinjiang and Henan about 300–400 years later, and perhaps a little earlier than this in Xinjiang, and we hypothesize that the likely route of wheat into China was via Russia through Gansu. © 2013, Elsevier Ltd.
Plant diversity of the Tianshui Basin in the western Loess Plateau during the mid-holocene - charcoal records from archaeological sites
(Elsevier, 2013-10-02) Sun, N; Li, XQ; Dodson, JR; Zhou, XY; Zhao, KL; Yang, Q
Assessing the potential impact of increased temperature needs examination of robust palaeorecords that contain analogues. The fossil charcoal (anthracological) records from the mid-Holocene archaeological sites can provide palaeo-analogues on the impacts of climate change. The Xishanping and Dadiwan sites were continuously developed during the Neolithic Culture in the Tianshui Basin, western Loess Plateau. A total of 24 samples of were recovered using a floatation method. At least 100 fragments were examined from each sample, and these fragments were identified following standard procedures, and the results were used to reconstruct the vegetation and plant diversity between 5200 and 4300 cal BP, which was a warm period for the region. The charcoal evidence from the Xishanping and Dadiwan sites confirm that woody plants were widely available, including temperate taxa such as Betula, Ulmus, Quercus, Carpinus, Acer, Corylus and Padus, and typical subtropical taxa such as Bambusoideae, Liquidambar formosana, Castanopsis, Pseudotsuga sinensis, and Eucommia ulmoides. The assemblages of fossil charcoal show that mixed forests of north-subtropical evergreen and deciduous broadleaved trees existed. This is a broader range of woody plants than at present in the Tianshui Basin. This leads to the conclusion that the warmer and increasing monsoon precipitation resulted in a northward shift in the southern vegetation zones. And that the natural botanical diversity between 5200 and 4300 cal BP was also greater than at present in the Tianshui Basin, western Loess Plateau. © 2013, Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.
Temporal trends in millet consumption in northern China
(Elsevier, 2014-10-01) Atahan, P; Dodson, JR; Li, XQ; Zhou, XY; Chen, L; Barry, LA; Bertuch, F
Temporal trends in prehistoric millet consumption are investigated in two regions of northern China, in the Wei River valley and a northern zone that encompasses north-eastern Shaanxi, western Shanxi and south-central Inner Mongolia. By directly radiocarbon dating each sample investigated, inferences about the timing of dietary shifts inferred from stable carbon and nitrogen isotope compositions can be made with a high degree of precision. Evidence presented here indicates that humans living around 4000 years ago in both the Wei River valley and the northern zone were heavily dependent on millet for their subsistence. By ca. 2500 cal. yr BP, a major diversification of diet had occurred in the Wei River valley, with some consuming much larger proportions of C3 foods than previously. These C3 foods may have included the western-derived cereals – wheat, barley and oats – and also rice. © 2014, Elsevier Ltd.
Use of coal in the bronze age in China
(Sage, 2014-03-03) Dodson, JR; Li, XQ; Sun, N; Atahan, P; Zhou, XY; Liu, HB; Zhao, KL; Hu, SM; Yang, ZM
People in northern and western China were probably the first in the world to use coal as a source of energy in a consistent way. The ages cluster around 1900–2200 BC in modern day Inner Mongolia and Shanxi provinces. These are areas where near-surface coal is abundant today and woody vegetation was scant in the Bronze Age. Since coal is bulky to transport, it was probably not a cost-effective energy source in areas with abundant wood supply. The sites where coal was first used were probably occupied for a century to a few centuries at most and were associated with Bronze Age societies. The earliest age is about 3490 BC from a house site at Xiahe in Shaanxi Province; however, the coal is not securely tied to the radiocarbon ages and is assumed to have been used at this site sometime after 3490 BC. The elemental composition of modern mine and sedimentary coal in nearby archaeological contexts suggests that coal was used from local sources, and that elemental composition of coal may be a useful tool in identifying site origin of coal.

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